-Condensation reaction is a chemical reaction where two molecules combine together to form a larger molecule, with the removal of a water molecule.
-Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction where a water molecule breaks down a complex substance into simpler substances.
NUTRIENTS :
-Nutrients are important for living organisms because they are crucial to cell division, growth, metalbolism, repair and mantainence of health.
-Nutrients can be divided into two groups : ORGANIC which contain carbon, consist of the proteins,fats,carbohydrates and vitamins and the INORGANIC which does not contain carbon, consist of water and mineral salts.
CARBOHYDRATES :
- Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, where the ration of hydrogen to oxygen atoms will always be 2:1.
-Carbohydrates are good sources of energy, 1 gram of carbohydrates can provide an average of 16 KJ of energy.
-Carbohydrates can be divided into three groups : MONOSACCHARIDES (simple sugars), DISACCHARIDES (double sugars) and POLYSACCHARIDES (complex carbohydrates).
-Carbohydrates are used as substrates for the synthesis of other organic compounds, and also as substrates for respiration which provides energy for cellular activities. It is also a key component in supporting structures such as the cell wall and also a main component in nectar which is found in flowers. Carbohydrates are also needed for the synthesis of natural lubricants, e.g. mucus and for the synthesis of nucleic acids e.g. DNA.
-Monosaccharides can be split into three groups. First, Glucose which is found in all animals and in the laves of plants. Second is Frutose which is found in fruit and vegetables, honey and rarely found in animals. Lastly is Galactose which is found in mammalian milk, fruits and vegetables and the hydrolysis of lactose.
-Disaccharidess are also split into 3 groups. First is Maltose, which is formed by the condensation reaction of two glucose molecules, and found in sprouting grains and the hydrolysis of starch and glycerol in animals. Second is Sucrose, which is formed by the condensation reaction of one glucose molecule and one frutose molecule, and found in sugarcane stems, sweet fruits, storage roots and not found in mammals. Finally, there is Lactose which is formed by the condensation reaction of a glucose molecule and a Galactose molecule, and found in mammalian milk.
-Polysaccharides are split in three groups as well. First is starch, which is formed by thousands of glucose molecules arranged in long, straight or branched chains, and are produced and stored in plants. Secondly is Glycerol, which is made up of chains of glucose molecules that are highly branched, and are produced and stored in animals. Finally theres cellulose which are made up of staright chains of glucose molecules, arranged differently from starch, found in cell walls and fibre which is part of a mammal's diet.
-Sugars can be converted into other forms for storage. In plants, its is converted to starch and stored in leaves and storage organs. In animals, it is converted to either glycerol, which is stored in the liver and muscles, or to fats, which is stored around the abdomen or kidney, and under the skin. Starch and Glycerol are ideal storage materials as they are insouluble in water, which means that they wont affect the water potential of the cells. They are aslo easily hydrolysed to glucose. They are compressed molecules thus they take up less space and also they are large, and easy to retain in the cell as they are too large to pass through the cell membrane.
-Benedict solution is a blue solution containing copper (ii) sulphate which is used to test for reducing sugars. When boiled, the reducing sugars will reduce the copper (ii) in the benedicts solution to a precipitate of copper (i) oxide. If the solution turns from blue to green, there is a trace amt of reducing sugar. If the solution turns from bllue to yellow or orange precipitate, there is a moderate amt of reducing sugar. If the solution turns from blue to orange red or brick red precipitate, there is a large amt of reducing sugar.
-The iodine test is used to detect for the presence of Starch. Any substance containing starch will turn the iodine solution to a blue-black colour.
FATS :
-Fats are made up of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.
-Fats are insouluble in water.
-Fats are synthesised by the body, but can also be obtained from the food we eat.
-A fat molecule is made up of a glycerol backbone with three fatty acid chains.
-Fats are good sources of energy; When burned, fats give out twice as much energy as carbohydrates.
-Fats can be split into two groups : SATURATED and UNSATURATED, which can be further divided into POLYUNSATURATED and MONOUNSTAURATED.
-Saturated fats have only carbon-hydrogen bonds, no carbon-carbon bonds, which means that one carbon atom is bonded to a maximum number if hydrogen atoms. The fatty acid chains are straight. They are solid in room temperature, serves as an energy reserve and also is usually found with carbohydrates. However, when taken excessively with carbohydrates, it might cause coronary heart disease or gallstones. Saturated fats are found in most animal sources, coconut milk, coconut oil, palm oils, Hydrogenated vegetable oils, dessert creamers and toppings.
-Monounsaturated fats have one carbon-carbon bond in a fatty acid unit. The fatty acid chains have one bent place, and is usually found in nut and vegetable oils.
-Polyunsaturated fats have more than one carbon -carbon bonding in he fatty acid unit, and the fatty acid chains have more than one bent place. It is liquid in room temperature, and serves as a energy reserve. It also helps reduce cholestrol levels in the blood. It is found in soybeans, grain/cereal products, fish, fish oil and seafood.
-Fats are used for energy storage and as a source of energy. Fats help reduce water loss at the skin surface, and is a solvent for fat soluble vitamins and vital substances. Fats is an important component in cell membranes and acts as an insulating layer to reduce heat loss.
-The emulsion test is used to test for fats. Ethanol and water is added fats and a white emulsion will form.
PROTEINS :
- Proteins are made up of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. Proteins are made up of amino acids.
-These amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds which will form polypeptides.
-These polypeptides will than join together forming longer chains of amino acids. One or more of these chains might fold together and form proteins, which have 3D structures.
-The proteins are held together by weak hydrogen bonds which can be easily overcome by heat or chemicals. Once these bonds are broken, the protien will denature.
-The sequence of amino acids are very specific; if the sequence change the shape and function of the protein will also change.
-Animal sources of protein include eggs, milk, meat and seafood. Plant sources include grains, nuts, soybeans, peas and beans.
-Proteins are used for the synthesis of antibodies to combat diseases and also for the synthesis of haemoglobin. Proteins are the main components in enzymes and several hormones and also used for the overall growth and repair of the body cells and tissue.
-The Biuret test is used to test for proteins. It is a blue solution containing sodium hydroxide and copper (ii) sulphate. The solution will turn violet if there are proteins and will turn pink if there are short chained polypeptides.
WATER :
-Water makes up 70% of our body mass.
-Water in animals is used as a way to regulate body heat through sweating, used as a solvent or a mediun for metabolic or chemical reactions, used in the hydrolysis of fats proteins and carbohydrates, transport dissolved substances within the body, and is the main component of protoplasm and body fluids.
-water in plants is a raw material for photosynthesis, helps gives plant cells their turgidity, and help plants keep upright. It also transports mineral salts from the roots to the leaves through the xylem, and food substances from the leaves to the other parts of the plants through the phleom.
-Water is lost in animals through breathing, sweating, shitting and urinating. In plants through transpiration.
-The amt of water needed is based on the environmental conditions, state of health and activity level.
AHHHHHH super long. it kinda works ya know revising everything on the blog ;D
biologicial molecules im finally done and so so so happy. YAY.
